Salahuddin,
perhaps the most celebrated of Muslim soldiers after Ali ibn Abu Talib
(r), was a man who molded history with his iron will. His accomplishment
in evicting the Crusaders from Palestine and Syria are well known. What
is less well known is his achievement in welding a monolithic Islamic
body politic, free of internal fissures, which offered the Muslims, for a
brief generation, the opportunity to dominate global events. It was the
generation of Salahuddin that not only recaptured Jerusalem, but also
laid the foundation of an Islamic Empire in India and briefly contained
the Crusader advance in Spain and North Africa.
With
the dissolution of the Fatimid Caliphate in Cairo and the consolidation
of Salahuddin’s hold on Syria and Egypt, the balance of power in the
eastern Mediterranean tilted in favor of the Muslims. Arabia, Yemen as
well as northern Iraq and eastern Anatolia were also added to
Salahuddin’s domains. It was only a matter of time before the weight of
this power was brought on the Crusaders. The cause for hostilities was
provided by one of the Latin chiefs, Renaud de Chatellon. Renaud was the
king of the coastal cities in Palestine and Lebanon.
To quote the well-known historian Bahauddin: “This
accursed Renaud was a great infidel and a very strong man. On one
occasion, when there was a truce between the Muslims and the Franks, he
treacherously attacked and carried off a caravan from Egypt that passed
through his territory. He seized these people, put them to torture,
threw them into pits and imprisoned some in dungeons. When the prisoners
objected and pointed out that there was a truce between the two
peoples, he remonstrated: “Ask your Muhammed to deliver you”.
Salahuddin, when he heard these words, vowed to slay the infidel with his own hands.”
Sybilla,
daughter of the previous king Amaury and her husband Guy de Lusignan
ruled the Frankish kingdom of Jerusalem at the time. Salahuddin demanded
retribution for the pillage of the caravan from Guy de Lusignan. The
latter refused. Salahuddin sent his son Al Afdal to hunt down Renaud.
His capital Karak was besieged. The Franks, upon hearing of this siege,
united and advanced to meet Al Afdal. In turn, Salahuddin moved to
assist his son. The two armies met on the banks of Lake Tiberias, near
Hittin, on the fourth of July 1187.
Salahuddin
positioned himself between the Crusaders and the lake, denying them
access to water. The Franks charged. By a skillful maneuver,
Salahuddin’s forces enveloped the Franks and destroyed them. Most of
their leaders were either captured or killed. Among those taken prisoner
were Guy de Lusignan, King of Jerusalem and Renaud, the rogue king of
the coastal cities who had caused the hostilities. Included among the
escaped leaders were Raymond of Tripoli and Hugh of Tiberias. Salahuddin
treated Guy de Lusignan with courtesy but had Renaud beheaded.
The
retreating Franks moved towards Tripoli, but Salahuddin would offer
them no respite. Tripoli was taken by storm. Acre was next. Nablus,
Ramallah, Jaffa and Beirut opened their gates to the Sultan. Only
Tripoli and Tyre remained occupied by the Franks. Salahuddin now turned
his attention to Jerusalem, known as Al Quds to Muslims. The city was
well defended by 60,000 Crusader soldiers. The Sultan had no desire to
cause bloodshed and offered them a chance for peaceful surrender in
return for freedom of passage and access to the holy sites. The offer
was rejected. The Sultan ordered the city besieged. The defenders bereft
of support from the coastline, surrendered (1187).
Salahuddin,
in his magnanimity, made the most generous terms of surrender to the
enemy. The Franks who wanted to reside in Palestine would be allowed to
do so, as free men and women. Those who wanted to leave would be allowed
to depart with their households and their belongings under full
protection of the Sultan. The (Eastern Orthodox) Greeks and the
Armenians were permitted to stay on with full rights of citizenship.
When Sybilla, Queen of Jerusalem, was leaving the city, the Sultan was
so moved by the hardship of her entourage that he ordered the imprisoned
husbands and sons of the wailing women to be set free so that they
might accompany their families. In many instances, the Sultan and his
brother paid the ransom to free the prisoners. History has seldom seen
such a contrast between the chivalry of a conquering hero like
Salahuddin who treated his vanquished foes with generosity and
compassion and the savage butchery of the Crusaders when they took
Jerusalem in 1099.
The
fall of Jerusalem sent Europe into a frenzy. Pope Clement III called
for a new Crusade. The Latin world was up in arms. Those taking the
Cross included Richard, King of England; Barbarosa, King of Germany; and
Augustus, King of France. The military situation in Syria favored
Salahuddin on the ground and the Crusaders at sea. Salahuddin sought an
alliance with Yaqub al Mansur of the Maghrib to blockade the western
Mediterranean. Yaqub had his hands full with the Crusaders in his own
backyard. The monarch of the Maghrib did not appreciate the global scope
of the Latin invasions. The alliance did not materialize and the
Crusaders were free to move men and material across the sea.
The
Third Crusade (1188-1191) was the most bitterly fought of all the
Crusades in Palestine. The European armies moved by sea and made Tyre
their principal staging port. Acre was the first major point of
resistance in their advance on Jerusalem. The three European monarchs
laid siege to the city while Salahuddin moved to relieve the city. A
long standoff ensued, lasting over two years, with charges and
counter-charges. On many occasions, the Muslim armies broke through and
brought relief to the city. But the Crusaders, with their sea-lanes
open, were re-supplied and the siege resumed.
What
followed was an epic armed struggle between the cross and the crescent.
Salahuddin’s armies were spread thin all across the Syrian coast and
the hinterland to guard against additional Crusader attacks by land.
Barbarosa, Emperor of Germany, advanced through Anatolia. There was only
token resistance from the Turks. Barbarosa brushed this resistance
aside, only to drown in the River Saraf on his way. Upon his death, the
German armies broke up and played only a minor part in the Third
Crusade. The defenders in Acre offered valiant resistance, but after a
long siege, exhausted and spent, surrendered in 1191.
The
victorious Crusaders went on a rampage and violating the terms of
surrender, butchered anyone who had survived the siege. King Richard is
himself reported to have slain the garrison after it had laid down its
arms. The Crusaders rested a while in Acre and then marched down the
coast towards Jerusalem. Salahuddin marched alongside them, keeping a
close watch on the invader armies. The 150 mile long route was marked by
many sharp engagements. When the Crusaders approached Ascalon,
Salahuddin, realizing that the city was impossible to defend, evacuated
the town and had it razed to the ground.
A
stalemate developed with Salahuddin guarding his supply routes by land
while the Crusaders controlled the sea. Richard of England finally
realized that he was facing a resolute man of steel and made an overture
for peace. Meetings took place between Richard and Saifuddin, brother
of Salahuddin. At first, Richard demanded the return of Jerusalem and
all the territories that had been liberated since the Battle of Hittin.
The demands were unacceptable and they were refused.
It
was at this juncture that Richard made his historic proposals to bring
peace to Jerusalem. According to its terms, Richard’s sister would marry
Salahuddin’s brother Saifuddin. The Crusaders would give the coast as
dowry to the bride. Salahuddin would give Jerusalem to his brother. The
bride and groom would rule the kingdom, with Jerusalem as its capital,
uniting the two faiths in a family bond. But the priests and many among
the Franks were opposed.
Threats
were made for the ex-communication of King Richard. Tired and disgusted
with the narrow-mindedness of his comrades, Richard longed to return
home. Finally, a peace treaty was concluded between Richard and
Salahuddin. Under its terms, Jerusalem would remain under the Sultan but
would be open to pilgrims of all faiths. Freedom of worship would be
guaranteed. The Franks would retain possession of a strip of land along
the coast extending from Jaffa to Tyre but the bulk of Syria and
Palestine would remain in Muslim hands.
The
Third Crusade marshaled all the energies of Europe on a single
enterprise, namely, the capture of Jerusalem. But all that the full
might of Europe and the combined resources of its monarchs could claim
was but one insignificant fortress, Acre. Salahuddin returned to
Damascus, victorious and hailed by his compatriots as a symbol of valor
and chivalry. He had achieved what few before him had achieved, namely a
united ummah facing a common foe. He spent the remainder of his days in
prayer and charity, building schools, hospitals and establishing a just
administration in his domains. This prince of warriors passed away on
the fourth of March 1193 and was buried in Damascus.
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